In a groundbreaking study that challenges long-standing assumptions about cancer metabolism, researchers have uncovered a crucial link between the spatial dynamics of hexokinase enzymes and the metabolic phenomena that fuel tumor growth. Hexokinase (HK), the enzyme responsible for initiating glucose metabolism by converting glucose to glucose 6-phosphate, plays an unexpectedly complex role in cancer cell bioenergetics, a discovery that could reshape therapeutic strategies targeting cancer metabolism.
The study focuses on two homologues of hexokinase, HK1 and HK2, both of which have been previously implicated in cancer cell metabolism due to their ability to localize at the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM). Intriguingly, large-scale CRISPR screens across hundreds of cancer cell lines have suggested that neither isoform is universally essential for cell proliferation under standard culture conditions. However, this perception changes dramatically when cells grow in human plasma-like medium, a culture condition that more closely mimics physiological environments. Under these more naturalistic conditions, the deletion of HK2 leads to pronounced growth defects, indicating a conditional essentiality that has remained largely unexplored.
Delving deeper, the research team uncovers that the key to this conditional essentiality lies in the subcellular localization of HK1. The conventional notion has been that mitochondrial attachment helps hexokinase maximize its catalytic efficiency by coupling glucose phosphorylation directly to ATP produced by oxidative phosphorylation. However, this study reveals a surprising paradigm: it is the cytosolic, or mitochondrially detached, form of HK that actually supports the Warburg effect—the hallmark of increased aerobic glycolysis seen in proliferating cells, including cancer cells.
This discovery stands to overturn decades of biochemical dogma by indicating that the detachment of HK1 from the mitochondrial membrane enables it to better promote glycolysis outside the oxidative phosphorylation machinery. Moreover, the data show that when conditions favor the relocalization of HK1 to the mitochondria, HK2 becomes indispensable for sustaining cytosolic glycolytic activity and, consequently, the Warburg phenotype. This finding suggests a finely tuned, isoform-specific division of labor and spatial regulation within the cell’s metabolic network.
The implications of these findings extend far beyond basic biochemistry. Cancer cells often rely on aerobic glycolysis to meet the dual demands of rapid growth and survival, a metabolic reprogramming known as the Warburg effect. By revealing that mitochondrial detachment of HK1—and its interplay with HK2—is a driving factor behind this metabolic state, the study provides compelling evidence that compartmentalized ATP production, rather than mere capacity, may dictate the metabolic fate of proliferating cells.
The authors propose a model in which HK2’s presence is required to compensate for the translocation-induced loss of cytosolic HK1 activity, maintaining the glycolytic flux essential for cell proliferation when HK1 localizes to the mitochondria. This relationship underscores a sophisticated metabolic control system where enzyme localization is as important as enzymatic activity in shaping overall metabolic output.
Furthermore, these insights shed light on the molecular mechanisms responsible for the observed metabolic plasticity in cancer cells, which can adapt to varying microenvironmental conditions, such as nutrient availability and oxygen tension. The use of human plasma-like medium in their experiments modeled these physiological conditions more faithfully than conventional culture methods, enabling the identification of dependencies that are masked under artificial culture conditions.
An exciting aspect of this research lies in its potential translational applications. HK2 has long been considered a promising target for cancer therapy due to its high expression in many tumors and minimal presence in most adult tissues. The study’s demonstration that HK2’s essentiality is context-dependent and linked to HK1’s mitochondrial localization provides new avenues for selectively targeting cancer cells that rely on this metabolic configuration, potentially improving the efficacy and specificity of metabolic inhibitors.
Additionally, by highlighting the compartmentalized nature of ATP synthesis, this work calls for a reevaluation of metabolic targeting strategies that have traditionally focused on total cellular ATP levels without considering subcellular localization. Drugs or therapeutic interventions designed to disrupt HK detachment dynamics or the balance between mitochondrial and cytosolic hexokinase could open novel therapeutic windows.
Beyond cancer, these findings may have broader implications for other proliferative and highly metabolic cell states, including immune cell activation and stem cell differentiation, where the Warburg effect is also prominent. Understanding how hexokinase localization governs metabolic rewiring might inform strategies to manipulate these processes in diverse biological contexts.
From a methodological standpoint, the study capitalizes on sophisticated CRISPR screening technology combined with physiologically relevant culture media, showcasing the power of functional genomics in revealing metabolic vulnerabilities that evade detection under traditional conditions. This approach underscores the importance of model systems that closely mimic in vivo environments for uncovering clinically relevant biological insights.
The revelation that mitochondrial detachment of hexokinases facilitates aerobic glycolysis also calls attention to the intricate spatial orchestration of metabolism within cells. Rather than viewing metabolic enzymes as static entities, this study encourages a dynamic perspective where localization and physical interactions critically modulate enzymatic function and metabolic flux.
Further exploration will be necessary to delineate the signaling pathways and molecular mechanisms governing HK1’s dynamic localization and how these are influenced by oncogenic signals, nutrient status, and cellular stress. Understanding these upstream regulators could provide additional targets for modulating cellular metabolism.
In conclusion, this study elegantly links enzyme compartmentalization with metabolic phenotype, positioning hexokinase localization as a central determinant of the Warburg effect. The nuanced interplay between HK1 and HK2, modulated by their subcellular distributions, underscores a sophisticated regulatory layer that supports proliferative metabolism through compartmentalized ATP production. This advances our understanding of cancer metabolism and opens promising avenues for targeted metabolic interventions, potentially revolutionizing how metabolic dependencies are exploited in therapeutic contexts.
As cancer research continues to unravel the complexities of tumor bioenergetics, these findings represent a significant leap forward. They highlight the importance of spatial metabolic regulation and caution against oversimplified models of enzyme essentiality. By integrating enzyme localization dynamics into the metabolic landscape, scientists are poised to uncover novel vulnerabilities that can be harnessed for improved cancer treatment strategies, ultimately impacting patient outcomes.
Subject of Research: Hexokinase localization and its role in cancer cell metabolism and the Warburg effect.
Article Title: Hexokinase detachment from mitochondria drives the Warburg effect to support compartmentalized ATP production.
Article References:
Huggler, K.S., Flickinger, K.M., Forsberg, M.H. et al. Hexokinase detachment from mitochondria drives the Warburg effect to support compartmentalized ATP production. Nat Metab (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-025-01428-1
Image Credits: AI Generated
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-025-01428-1
Tags: cancer cell proliferation under different culture conditionsconditional essentiality of HK2 in cancer cellsCRISPR screens in cancer researchglucose metabolism and cancer bioenergeticsHexokinase enzymes in cancer metabolismHK1 and HK2 isoforms in cancermitochondrial localization of hexokinasephysiological environment effects on cancer cell growthrole of hexokinase in tumor growthspatial dynamics of metabolic enzymestherapeutic strategies targeting cancer metabolismWarburg effect and ATP production
