Lockdown birth cohort research is adding new evidence to the long-running debate over how early-life disruptions shape later development. A study published online in Archives of Disease in Childhood reports that children born during England’s first COVID-19 lockdown showed lower levels of executive function—cognitive skills used for planning, problem solving and adapting to changing demands—than would typically be expected.
The results focus on a period of unusually restricted social contact, spanning 23 March 2020 to 19 July 2021. During this time, public health rules reduced everyday interaction across households and peers, enforced distancing, required face coverings, and closed many early-years community settings such as baby groups and recreational spaces.
To examine potential developmental effects, UK researchers designed the BICYCLE study (Born In COVID Year – Core Lockdown Effects), hosted by City St George’s, University of London. The preliminary analysis includes 205 children born between 23 March and 23 June 2020, recruited as a school-age cohort for direct developmental assessment and caregiver reporting.
Participants underwent standardised testing of language and non-verbal reasoning. Caregivers also completed questionnaires covering executive functioning dimensions including emotional regulation, working memory, planning and organisation, and independent problem solving, alongside measures of fine and gross motor skills.
A key methodological feature was that 25 children were assessed in person and 180 remotely via Zoom using identical session structures (three to four sessions, each 45–60 minutes). The team reports no meaningful differences between assessment modalities, supporting the comparability of remote and onsite data.
Caregiver-reported executive function was below typical pre-pandemic expectations and below what would be predicted from children’s non-verbal reasoning scores. Approximately one third of the cohort was rated as having executive function needs.
Language outcomes showed a more mixed pattern. Overall language scores aligned with age expectations, but expressive language—the ability to use words to communicate—appeared below predictions based on non-verbal reasoning, while receptive language may have been partially protected by increased adult attention during lockdown.
Motor skills, assessed via caregiver report, were described as broadly consistent with age-related norms. However, because the study is observational and lacks a matched comparison group, it cannot establish cause and effect, and caregiver reporting may introduce bias.
Still, the authors argue the findings signal a need for continued cohort tracking and targeted support for children who may struggle with everyday executive functioning demands, including attention control and flexibility.
Subject of Research: People
Article Title: Developmental outcomes in 4 year old children born in the first COVID-19 lockdown in England: preliminary findings from the Born in COVID Year – Core Lockdown Effects (BICYCLE) study.
News Publication Date: 14-Jul-2026
Web References: http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2025-329529
References: Archives of Disease in Childhood; DOI: 10.1136/archdischild-2025-329529
Image Credits:
Keywords: COVID-19; executive function; early childhood development; language; lockdown; observational study; BICYCLE study
Tags: assessment of executive functioning in pandemic-born childrenCOVID-19 lockdown and early years community closureCOVID-19 lockdown impact on early childhood developmentdevelopmental consequences of pandemic-related disruptionsearly childhood cognitive skills during COVID-19effects of early social deprivation oneffects of social isolation on executive function in childrenimpact of restricted social contact on language and reasoning skillslockdown-born children’s emotional regulation and behaviorlongitudinal effects of pandemic on child developmentparental reporting of emotional and motor skills in young children
