In a 2025 opinion paper published in Fungal Biology and Biotechnology, researchers propose the Applied and Conservation Mycology Framework (ACMF) to align fungal biotechnology with Indigenous Knowledge Systems. The framework aims to support planetary health, defined as the health of human civilization and the state of the natural systems it depends on. The authors, including Rolando Perez and Keolu Fox, argue that integrating Indigenous Data Sovereignty and Governance can help address all 23 targets of the Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KM-GBF). This approach centers on fungal biotechnological innovation led by Indigenous Peoples, specifically focusing on the Kara and Kichwa Nations of Ecuador.
The paper highlights that fungi inhabit every ecosystem and play critical roles in biogeochemical nutrient webs, storing massive amounts of carbon and mobilizing nutrients such as phosphorus. Globally, there are approximately 2.5 million species of fungi, of which only 5 to 7.5 percent are currently described. At current characterization rates, it will take approximately 750 to 1,000 years to describe all estimated species, a timeline considered alarming given rapid global biodiversity loss. The authors note that the constitution of Ecuador recognizes fungi in the Rights of Nature, a legal precedent that inspired scientific advocacy for similar protections at the United Nations Biodiversity Conference.
Applied mycology is defined in the paper as a field of science that uses knowledge of fungal biology for human and non-human beneficial purposes. This includes artisanal and industrial production, ecosystem remediation, and edible fungi cultivation to increase food security. For instance, macrofungi produced more than 44 million metric tons of edible mushrooms worth USD 87 billion in 2021. The authors suggest that fungal foods could be grown on forest and agricultural residues to bolster global food security while advancing sustainability. Mycological production often occurs via submerged fermentation in tanks or vessels filled with liquid nutrients, a method used in the traditional Kara Nation beverage Chicha, which is produced in forty-liter clay vessels.
Alternative production methods, such as solid-state fermentation, more closely resemble natural decomposition processes mediated by saprophytic fungi. Amazonian Kichwa Nation women-led cooperatives use this method in containers woven from banana leaves to grow Pleurotus species on spent coffee grounds. The paper emphasizes that working with local fungi and substrates helps prevent invasive species dispersion and supports decentralized networks of production. This decentralization is presented as a decolonial strategy to ensure Indigenous ownership, self-determination, and economic resilience, contrasting with centralized production in large facilities owned by multinational corporations.
Mycelium materials derived from applied mycology could replace some types of plastic packaging, construction materials, and textiles. These materials exhibit properties such as flame retardance and self-healing, which can be tuned via genetic modification. Researchers are also working to turn plastic into a substrate for fungal products and developing mycelium materials for biomedical applications, such as wound-healing products. Although these industrial applications are novel to many societies, the authors note that Indigenous Peoples have long engaged fungi in materials and healthcare, including wound healing, for thousands of years.
Conservation mycology faces challenges due to the vast and under-described nature of fungal biodiversity. Fungi are not currently protected by the Convention on Biological Diversity and receive comparatively little attention than animal and plant relatives. The concept of conservation of abundance leverages the unique biology of fungi to form conservation frameworks that take a habitat protection approach. The authors advocate for pragmatic approaches that spatially target regions with high fungal biodiversity, which largely overlap with Indigenous Peoples’ territories. Citizen scientists have made numerous contributions to fungal identification through the internet application iNaturalist, and some have constructed their own culture collections to support conservation efforts.
The paper introduces BioKulture Systems Design (BKD) as an approach to capacity building that emphasizes polycentric governance. BKD envisions Indigenous-led Institutional Review Boards and Self-Governance R&D Councils in the Global South, particularly in the Andean and Amazonian bioregions. This design recognizes non-human community contributors, including flora, fauna, fungi, and geological features such as rivers and mountains. The authors argue that bridging BKD and fungal biotechnologies could enable greater amounts of high-quality biodiversity data governance and benefit sharing across complex industries. This approach aims to address specific KM-GBF targets related to meaningful participation and compliance with Indigenous governance.
Indigenous futures thinking is identified as a powerful tool for advancing fungal biotechnologies that foster a more integrative understanding of fungi. The authors reference four frames of Indigenous futures thinking: adaptation oriented, participatory oriented, culturally grounded, and indigenizing. The indigenizing frame enables Indigenous futurity as practices of re-centering to privilege the Indigenous voice and counter contemporary dominance. Applying this approach to fungal culture collections and databases could address the need for ground-truth datasets, improved bioinformatic annotations, and traceable data with local communities directly participating in capacity building and access and benefit sharing.
The ACMF proposes that Indigenous-led labs for culturing, cataloging, and functional genomics could aid in ex situ conservation efforts by increasing culture collection capacities. These labs would contribute high-quality, ethically sourced Digital Sequence Information (DSI) while maintaining local, polycentric governance and control over data and biocultural knowledge. Contemporary biotechnology tools, such as CRISPR/Cas9 and cell-free systems, can help determine cultivation conditions necessary for the functional genomics of cultivable and uncultivable species. Decentralizing the phenotypic study and functional genomics of these fungi will advance science by generating new data to improve bioinformatic annotation pipelines and form functional collectives.
Digital technologies and relevant policies can reaffirm the contributions of Indigenous Peoples to biotechnology innovation and conservation enterprises. The paper highlights recommendations from COP16 regarding the percent of profits or revenues companies that use DSI might pay to Indigenous Peoples to meet benefit sharing goals, such as 1 percent of profit or 0.1 percent of revenue. Articles of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples outline rights to knowledge production, Free, Prior, and Informed Consent, and redress for past harm. Additionally, Article 7 of Ecuador’s Constitution emphasizes the right of nature to respect for its existence, providing a legal foundation for these biotechnological and conservation efforts.
The authors acknowledge significant challenges to implementing the framework, including the need to navigate the tension between the intrinsic and instrumental value of fungi. They argue that recognizing the rights of fungi under the Rights of Nature will not, by itself, prevent the exploitation of fungi. Essential human needs, such as clean water, food, healthcare, and housing, must be met to ensure ubiquitous, safe, and secure biotechnologies. Respecting the sovereignty of nations and communities, particularly those with regulatory restrictions on biotechnology, requires essential underlying capacities such as the internet, reagents, and hardware supply chains.
Practitioners must apply BioKulture Systems Design when engaging Indigenous Peoples, as Western hegemonic notions of ownership and intellectual property may be inadequate for Indigenous cultural property systems. Aligning open science, FAIR, and TRUST principles with CARE principles for data could provide a more ethical foundation for the global bioeconomy. The choice to engage the bioeconomy must reside with Indigenous Peoples’ free, prior, and informed consent and sovereign refusal. To mitigate unintended consequences of ex-situ conservation and local biomass utilization, Indigenous Peoples should lead the sourcing of fungi and substrates to ensure responsible practices and maintain majority ownership of regional businesses.
Finally, the paper emphasizes the need for sustainable foundations for modern technology to support conservation. Computer chips for modeling biological systems and consumable labware must be produced and operated sustainably. The ACMF would require significant computational resources, which could negatively impact planetary health if not managed carefully. Current biosecurity protocols may not be amenable to decentralized computational methods, requiring the maturation of alternatives and investment in new capabilities in sustainable manufacturing and computer science. The authors conclude that guided by Indigenous Peoples, decentralized applied and conservation mycology can manage complexity and enable equitable Indigenous fungal futures that achieve positive planetary health outcomes for generations to come.
Subject of Research: Integration of Indigenous Knowledge Systems and fungal biotechnology for conservation and planetary health
Article Title: Indigenizing fungal biotechnology for planetary health: an opinion paper
Article References: Perez, R., Flores, W., Astolfi, M., Espinoza, U. J., Zimring, T. B., & Fox, K. (2025). Indigenizing fungal biotechnology for planetary health: an opinion paper. Fungal Biology and Biotechnology, 12(1), Article 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40694-025-00200-0
Image Credits: AI Generated
DOI: 10.1186/s40694-025-00200-0
Keywords: fungal biotechnology, Indigenous Knowledge Systems, planetary health, conservation mycology, Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, decentralized science, digital sequence information, bioeconomy, Indigenizing, fungal, biotechnology, planetary
News Source: Gregory Coleman. (November 7, 2026). Indigenous Frameworks Proposed for Fungal Biotechnology. Scienmag.
