In the vast and diverse world of vertebrates, brain sizes vary dramatically, even among species with similar body sizes. This phenomenon has long intrigued scientists, leading to questions about what physiological and environmental factors drive the evolution of encephalization—the increase in brain relative to body size. Recent insights from researchers at the Max Planck Institute for Animal Behavior in Konstanz have shed new light on this question by identifying two critical determinants: parental investment and body temperature.
Among vertebrates, mammals and birds are known to possess disproportionately large brains relative to their body sizes when compared to other groups, such as reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Sharks, a group occasionally overlooked in this regard, occupy an intermediate position with brain sizes larger than many fish, but smaller than warm-blooded vertebrates. This gradient provokes questions about the evolutionary pressures and biological mechanisms underlying these differences. Brain size is not just a simple correlate of body size; rather, it is intricately tied to metabolic demands and developmental strategies.
One fascinating aspect that emerges from comparative studies is the relationship between social complexity and brain size. Species that live in social groups generally exhibit larger brains, likely due to the cognitive demands of navigating complex social interactions and environments. However, this is not the only factor at play. More profound physiological attributes, especially those related to thermoregulation and parental care, strongly influence brain size evolution. The ability to maintain a stable, high body temperature stands out as a major enabler of encephalization.
Unlike cold-blooded animals whose body temperature fluctuates with the environment, endothermic animals—birds and mammals—can sustain elevated and steady temperatures metabolically. This thermal constancy enables more efficient brain function since neural tissue performs optimally under specific temperature ranges. The researchers confirmed that within each vertebrate lineage, species with stable and higher body temperatures tend to support larger brains relative to their body mass. This finding bridges the gap between physiological processes and evolutionary outcomes, outlining the critical role of thermoregulation in brain development.
Another factor intricately linked to brain size is parental investment, particularly the size and care of offspring. Producing large, well-developed young requires significant energy, but this investment pays off by supporting the growth of energetically expensive neural tissue. Young animals with relatively large brains face substantial energetic costs, making parental provisioning essential during early development. Evolutionary trajectories favor lineages capable of feeding and nurturing their young with high resource input over extended developmental periods, thus allowing the brain to grow larger over time.
Delving deeper, the “Expensive Brain Hypothesis” frames brain tissue as metabolically costly. Unlike other organs that can reduce activity during rest or fasting, the brain requires a continuous supply of energy. Therefore, the evolution of larger brains must be balanced by an organism’s capacity either to increase its energy production or to optimize survival and reproductive success sufficiently to offset these costs. Strategies such as sustained parental care and maintaining body heat appear to be adaptive solutions that enable species to bear such energetic burdens.
The study’s insights further extend to species traditionally considered cold-blooded but which inhabit warm environments or microhabitats where they can maintain elevated body temperatures. Sharks living in warm, shallow waters, such as the blacktip reef shark, exhibit relatively larger brains than colder-water counterparts. This suggests that local environmental temperatures can also indirectly influence encephalization through their impact on metabolic rates and developmental timelines.
Human beings represent the apex of this evolutionary trend. We are warm-blooded, care intensively for our large-brained offspring over unprecedented developmental periods, and consequently sport the largest brain relative to body weight in the vertebrate kingdom. Our extended childhood and the heavy parental investment it entails have allowed unique cognitive capabilities to evolve, underpinning complex behaviors such as language, culture, and technology.
Importantly, the researchers highlight that the ability to maintain a high and steady body temperature was not initially selected for brain enlargement, but rather for other advantages—such as nocturnal activity in mammals and long-distance flight in birds. Only later did this physiological trait unlock the evolutionary potential for sustained brain growth and increased cognitive capacity. This exemplifies how evolutionary novelties can have far-reaching, unforeseen consequences, opening ecological and behavioral niches for species to exploit.
This research also challenges simplistic assumptions that brain size is solely a function of relative body size or that social demands are the predominant driver of encephalization. Instead, a nuanced interplay of developmental biology, physiology, ecology, and evolutionary history emerges, underscoring the multifactorial nature of brain evolution in vertebrates. The findings encourage a re-examination of comparative brain studies, integrating metabolic and parental parameters for a more holistic understanding.
Given the brain’s high energetic costs, it becomes evident why evolutionary pressures strongly shape traits influencing energy budgets. The ability to thermoregulate efficiently and to invest heavily in offspring are two mutually reinforcing adaptations that set the stage for evolutionary innovation in brain size. Studying diverse vertebrate lineages under this framework not only elucidates their past evolutionary trajectories but also provides predictions about how environmental changes might impact brain evolution in the future.
Ultimately, this landmark investigation broadens our comprehension of biological complexity, demonstrating how interconnected factors—thermal physiology, parental care strategies, and ecological context—drive the remarkable variability in vertebrate brain evolution. By illuminating these patterns, scientists gain a deeper appreciation for the intricate constraints and opportunities that shape cognitive capacities across the animal kingdom.
Subject of Research: Animals
Article Title: Parental investment and body temperature explain encephalization in vertebrates
News Publication Date: 3-Nov-2025
Web References:
10.1073/pnas.2506145122
Image Credits: Angela Albi
Keywords: vertebrate brain size, encephalization, parental investment, body temperature, warm-blooded, endothermy, metabolic costs, brain evolution, animal cognition, physiological adaptation
Tags: cognitive abilities in social speciescomparison of brain sizes in mammals and birdsevolution of brain size in vertebratesevolutionary pressures on brain developmentMax Planck Institute research on animal behaviormetabolic demands of larger brainsparental investment in offspringphysiological factors influencing brain evolutionrelationship between body temperature and brain sizesharks and brain size comparisonsocial complexity and cognitive demandsvertebrate brain evolution studies
