In a transformative leap that challenges longstanding constraints in energy conversion technology, researchers have unveiled a groundbreaking design paradigm for solid oxide cells (SOCs) that dramatically enhances their efficiency, durability, and structural integration. Traditional SOCs, fundamental devices capable of interconverting chemical energy and electricity at high temperatures, have been largely limited by planar, two-dimensional (2D) architectures. These conventional designs impose significant restrictions on compactness and weight efficiency due to their inherent reliance on multi-material components and complex assembly processes. However, a pioneering team led by Zhou, Lalwani, and Sun has shattered this 2D boundary by engineering a truly three-dimensional (3D) gyroidal SOC using state-of-the-art additive manufacturing technologies, charting a new course towards next-generation energy systems.
The implications of this leap are profound. SOCs have historically been manufactured in planar stacks involving layered components such as electrodes, electrolytes, and metallic interconnects. These assemble into bulky configurations that not only increase the device’s specific weight but also introduce mechanical vulnerabilities through the necessity of seals and interconnects prone to thermal and chemical degradation. By contrast, the newly developed gyroidal SOC features a monolithic structure formed from a triply periodic minimal surface—a mathematical geometry typified by continuous, highly interconnected channels that optimize surface area within minimal volume. This geometry enables unprecedented electrode surface exposure and gas diffusion pathways, unlocking superior electrochemical performance while drastically reducing weight and volume.
At the heart of this breakthrough lies additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, which affords exceptional resolution and control over complex geometries. Leveraging this advanced fabrication method, the research team successfully printed a monolithic gyroid-shaped SOC that integrates all functional components seamlessly into a single architecture. By omitting traditional metallic interconnects and sealing elements, the design simplifies manufacturing and mitigates common failure modes related to thermal stresses and corrosive degradation of dissimilar materials. This innovation achieves a remarkable balance of structural integrity and electrochemical functionality hitherto unimaginable in solid oxide technology.
The gyroidal structure’s continuous porous network enhances both ion transport and gas diffusion. Efficient fuel and oxidant delivery within the intricate 3D geometry ensures that reaction sites are uniformly accessible, markedly improving the cell’s operational stability and performance. Compared to conventional planar configurations, the gyroidal SOC boasts a drastically enhanced mass-specific power density exceeding 1 W per gram, which translates to a volumetric power density surpassing 3 W per cubic centimeter during fuel cell operation. These metrics reflect a significant advancement, suggesting that energy systems can now be constructed with considerably reduced size and weight without compromising output.
In electrolysis mode, where the SOC facilitates hydrogen production by electrically splitting water vapor, the gyroidal cell’s volumetric and mass-indexed hydrogen production rates exhibit similarly extraordinary improvements. The conventional planar stacks, constrained by their 2D nature, tend to be bulky and suffer from inefficient spatial utilization, resulting in limited hydrogen output per unit mass and volume. The novel 3D design produces hydrogen at rates nearly an order of magnitude higher—approximately 7 × 10^−4 normal cubic meters per hour per gram in specific terms and 2 × 10^−3 normal cubic meters per hour per cubic centimeter volumetrically—marking a pivotal stride forward in hydrogen generation efficiency.
Beyond power and gas production metrics, the monolithic gyroidal cell demonstrates exceptional thermomechanical stability. The continuous nature of the additive-manufactured structure effectively mitigates thermal expansion mismatches that historically cause delamination and mechanical failure in multi-layered SOC stacks. This durable mechanical behavior significantly extends operational life and reliability, crucial for technologies deployed under harsh high-temperature environments. Furthermore, the manufacturing approach reduces the assembly complexity, thereby lowering cost and facilitating scalable production of SOC modules tailored for diverse applications ranging from portable power units to large-scale hydrogen production facilities.
A key feature enabling this breakthrough is the use of triply periodic minimal surface geometries—complex 3D mathematical surfaces that balance minimal interfacial area with maximal connectivity. Such surfaces have been studied extensively in materials science for their ability to create lightweight, yet mechanically robust architectures. By applying this concept to SOC design, the research team has opened avenues for optimized electrode interfaces and improved gas flow channels, which traditionally have been constrained by planar fabrication methods. The successful realization of these surfaces via high-precision additive manufacturing underscores the unique synergies between advanced geometry, materials science, and manufacturing technology essential for future energy devices.
The elimination of metallic interconnects—a traditional SOC design staple—is particularly noteworthy. Metallic components, while enabling electrical pathways between cells in planar stacks, necessitate complex sealing systems and introduce components susceptible to oxidation and thermal fatigue. By fabricating a continuous ceramic monolith encompassing all electrochemical functions, the gyroidal SOC intrinsically solves these issues, reducing parasitic resistances, improving redox stability, and simplifying system integration. This monolithic approach holds promise not only for stationary power and electrolysis systems but also for mobile, aerospace, and off-grid applications where size, weight, and robustness are paramount.
In addition to its technical superiority, this new design paradigm also addresses critical socioeconomic and environmental challenges. Hydrogen production via high-efficiency electrolysis is a cornerstone of decarbonized energy futures, enabling energy storage and sector coupling essential for mitigating climate change. The gyroidal SOC’s enhanced volumetric and specific hydrogen production rates could substantially reduce capital costs and footprint of electrolyzer installations, making clean hydrogen more economically viable and globally accessible. Similarly, improved fuel cell performance aides distributed power generation with minimized material and energy resource consumption, aligning with sustainability mandates.
Moreover, the straightforward manufacturing procedure heralds a shift in SOC production philosophy. Conventional SOC stacks involve sequential sintering, layering, and sealing of disparate materials—a process fraught with yield limitations and costly quality control measures. In contrast, additive manufacturing of monolithic structures enables rapid prototyping, seamless component integration, and versatile design iterations without retooling. Such flexibility could accelerate innovation cycles and facilitate tailored cell designs optimized for specific operational conditions, fueling a new era of SOC customization and industrial adoption.
While this advancement marks a major milestone, the research also points toward future explorations in optimizing material compositions and microstructural refinements integrated within the gyroidal framework. Potential improvements include engineering functional layers with graded porosities, incorporating advanced electrode catalysts, and coupling with novel electrolytes to further elevate performance metrics and operational lifespans. The synergy of geometry-guided design and materials innovations promises to sustain SOC competitiveness across a broad spectrum of clean energy technologies.
Beyond the immediate field of solid oxide technology, the study epitomizes the power of modern manufacturing technologies combined with intricate mathematical geometries to redefine engineering boundaries. The research exemplifies how leveraging additive manufacturing’s resolution and accuracy can translate theoretical minimal surface concepts into practical, high-performance devices for energy conversion—a principle that could reverberate across batteries, sensors, catalysis, and beyond.
In summary, the monolithic gyroidal SOC developed by Zhou, Lalwani, Sun, and colleagues represents a paradigm shift in electrochemical energy conversion. By transcending the 2D planar constraints, adopting triply periodic minimal surface architectures, and capitalizing on additive manufacturing, the team has realized a device that outperforms existing planar stacks by nearly an order of magnitude in key performance metrics while simplifying manufacturing and enhancing durability. This breakthrough heralds a future where energy storage and generation devices are not only more efficient but also smaller, lighter, and more adaptable to diverse real-world demands.
As the energy sector races toward decarbonization and sustainable solutions, innovations such as this gyroidal SOC illuminate pathways toward integrating clean hydrogen production and power generation in compact and resilient forms. The successful realization of such advanced architectures underscores the foundational importance of multidisciplinary collaboration—melding mathematics, materials science, and manufacturing engineering—to catalyze revolutionary progress. This research stands as a beacon for optimizing energy technologies that will underpin the global shift to a cleaner, more sustainable energy landscape.
Ultimately, the advent of monolithic gyroidal solid oxide cells promises to reimagine how electrical and chemical energy conversion devices are conceptualized, fabricated, and deployed. By breaking free from traditional planar designs, this innovation offers a glimpse into a new generation of scalable, efficient, and robust energy devices that are essential for meeting the increasing energy demands and environmental challenges of the 21st century.
Subject of Research: Solid oxide cells (SOCs) with 3D gyroidal architecture fabricated via additive manufacturing for enhanced energy conversion efficiency and durability.
Article Title: Monolithic gyroidal solid oxide cells by additive manufacturing.
Article References:
Zhou, Z., Lalwani, A.R., Sun, X. et al. Monolithic gyroidal solid oxide cells by additive manufacturing. Nat Energy (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-025-01811-y
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