Agra Green Space Recovery Hides Persistent Fragmentation

A study published in Discover Applied Sciences reveals that while the total area of urban green spaces in Agra, India, has partially recovered since 2016, the spatial quality of these areas remains compromised by persistent fragmentation and isolation. The research, conducted by Somendra Kumar, Vipasha Sharma, and Pradeep Kumar, integrates remote sensing with landscape ecology to evaluate the spatio-temporal dynamics of urban green spaces (UGSs) in the historical city between 2008 and 2024. The findings indicate that simple increases in green space extent do not necessarily translate into improved ecological functionality or spatial organization, highlighting the limitations of conventional area-based assessments.

Urban green spaces are essential for maintaining ecological integrity, enhancing urban resilience, and improving the quality of life for residents. However, traditional methods of assessing these spaces often focus primarily on quantifying their extent, overlooking critical changes in spatial configuration and fragmentation. These structural factors are fundamental to determining the ecological functionality of green infrastructure. The study addresses this gap by investigating how urbanization has altered the spatial patterns of green spaces in Agra, a rapidly urbanizing historical city, using a multi-temporal approach that combines satellite imagery with advanced landscape metrics.

The research team utilized multi-temporal Landsat imagery to extract urban green spaces through an Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI)-based thresholding approach. This method was combined with Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI) masking to distinguish green areas from built-up environments. To ensure the reliability of the extracted maps, the team performed a classification accuracy assessment.

To evaluate changes in landscape composition, fragmentation, connectivity, and spatial organization, the researchers computed patch-level and class-level landscape metrics using the FRAGSTATS software. Additionally, the study incorporated projected population data to assess the availability of urban green space per capita.

The results show that the area of urban green spaces in Agra declined from 32.23 square kilometers, representing 26.10 percent of the area, in 2008 to 28.77 square kilometers, or 23.30 percent, in 2016. Following this initial decline, the area experienced a partial recovery, reaching 31.34 square kilometers, or 25.38 percent, by 2024. Although this represents a numerical increase in green space extent compared to the 2016 low, the landscape metrics indicate that the recovery was not accompanied by a corresponding improvement in the spatial quality of the green spaces.

Despite the partial recovery in area, the landscape metrics revealed persistent fragmentation and increasing patch isolation. The study found reduced cohesion and limited improvement in landscape connectivity, suggesting that the green spaces became more disconnected over time.

Furthermore, the availability of urban green space per capita declined continuously throughout the study period. In 2008, the availability was 20.82 square meters per person, but this figure dropped to 14.43 square meters per person by 2024. This decline is attributed to rapid population growth in Agra, which outpaced the recovery in green space area.

The study demonstrates that integrating landscape metrics with remote sensing provides a more comprehensive evaluation of urban green space dynamics than conventional area-based assessments alone. These findings provide valuable evidence for planning strategies aimed at enhancing green space connectivity, ecological resilience, and equitable green infrastructure provision.

Subject of Research: Spatio-temporal dynamics of urban green spaces in Agra, India

Article Title: Urbanization and changing spatial patterns of urban green spaces using landscape metrics based assessment in Historical City Agra, India

Article References: Kumar, S., Sharma, V., & Kumar, P. (2026). Urbanization and changing spatial patterns of urban green spaces using landscape metrics based assessment in Historical City Agra, India. Discover Applied Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-026-09601-1

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s42452-026-09601-1

Keywords: urban green spaces, landscape metrics, remote sensing, Agra, urbanization, fragmentation, ecological resilience, spatial patterns, changing, spatial, patterns, urban